Operators are traits

An operator is a trait exactly when it is a method call, so writing one on your own type means implementing the trait it stands for - and the three that are no method call are the three that are not traits.

Not built natively yet. ?? on a type of your own is not built by the native back end yet, so torb run refuses the examples here that use it. torb check accepts them, and the rules are the language's.

An operator on a value of your own type is a method call in disguise: a + b is a.add(b), and a.add exists only where the type implements Add.

Example#

type Vector2 with Add, Subtract, Negate, Multiply<Float> {
  x: Float
  y: Float

  fn add(other: Vector2): Vector2 {
    Vector2(x + other.x, y + other.y)
  }

  fn subtract(other: Vector2): Vector2 {
    Vector2(x - other.x, y - other.y)
  }

  fn negate(): Vector2 {
    Vector2(-x, -y)
  }

  fn multiply(other: Float): Vector2 {
    Vector2(x * other, y * other)
  }
}

const v = (Vector2(1.0, 2.0) + Vector2(3.0, 4.0)) * 2.0
print(-v)

Syntax#

a + b        Add.add(a, b)          a - b        Subtract.subtract(a, b)
a * b        Multiply.multiply(a, b)     a / b   Divide.divide(a, b)
a % b        Remainder.remainder(a, b)   -a      Negate.negate(a)
a ** b       Power.power(a, b)
a & b        Bits.bitwiseAnd(a, b)       a | b   Bits.bitwiseOr(a, b)
a ^ b        Bits.bitwiseExclusiveOr(a, b)    ~a   Bits.bitwiseNot(a)
a << n       Bits.shiftedLeft(a, by: n)  a >> n  Bits.shiftedRight(a, by: n)
a == b       Equals.equals(a, b)         a < b   Compare.compare(a, b) == .Less
a[i]         Index.at(a, i)            a[i] = v    MutableIndex.set(a, i, v)
a[from..to]  Slice.slice(a, from..to)    a[from..to] = v   MutableSlice.replace(a, from..to, v)
a ?? b       OrElse.orElse(a, b)         "{a}"   Show.show(a)

Rules#

An operator is a trait exactly when it is a method call. + is Add.add, - is Subtract.subtract, * is Multiply.multiply, / is Divide.divide, % is Remainder.remainder, unary - is Negate.negate, ** is Power.power, &, |, ^, ~, << and >> are the members of Bits, == is Equals.equals, </<=/>/>= go through Compare.compare, a ?? b is OrElse.orElse, and string interpolation is Show.show. A type that does not come with the trait hears so at the operator:
Kompiliert nicht
```
const value = 1 ?? 0
print value
// error: `Int64` does not implement `OrElse`, so `a ?? b` has no meaning for it
```
A binary operator's trait has a default Other and a default Output, both Self (trait Add<Other = Self, Output = Self>), so with Add alone means "adds to itself, returns itself". Writing Multiply<Float> picks a different Other - Vector2 * Float, not Vector2 * Vector2.
a ** b is Power.power, binds tighter than *, / and %, and groups to the right. 2 * 3 ** 2 is 18, and 2 ** 3 ** 2 is 2 ** 9, which is how mathematics writes a tower. Its trait is Power<Exponent = Self, Output = Self>: every integer type is raised by an Int and a float by a float or by an Int, so Int8 ** Int is an Int8. On the integers a power is exact, panics on overflow the way * does, and panics on a negative exponent, whose result is no whole number; on a float it is IEEE-754 and never panics.
```
print(2 * 3 ** 2)
print(2 ** 3 ** 2)
print(2.0 ** -1)
// prints 18
// prints 512
// prints 0.5
```
A - directly in front of the base of ** is an error. Mathematics reads -x ** 2 as -(x ** 2), and a prefix operator binds tighter than every infix one, so a parser would read (-x) ** 2: the two differ in sign, and the language makes the author write the one that is meant. The same holds for ! and ~. The exponent may start with a -, because x ** -2 means only one thing.
Kompiliert nicht
```
const x = 3
const square = -x ** 2
// error: A unary `-` directly in front of the base of `**` is ambiguous
```
&, |, ^, ~, << and >> are the members of Bits, on the levels Go and Swift give them. & binds like *, | and ^ like +, and a shift tighter than * and looser than ** - so there is no C trap: flags & 1 == 0 is (flags & 1) == 0. The other operand of &, | and ^ is the same type, the amount of a shift an Int, and the result has the type of the left operand. A shift of a signed type is arithmetic, one of an unsigned type logical, the bits that leave the width are dropped, and a shift by a negative amount or by the width or more panics. ~ is a prefix like -: it binds tighter than every binary operator (~a & b is (~a) & b), and directly on the base of ** it is the same error as -.
```
const flags = 0b1010
print(flags & 1 == 0)
print(flags | 0b0101)
print(flags ^ 0b0011)
print(1 << 4 * 2)
print(-16 >> 2)
// prints true
// prints 15
// prints 9
// prints 32
// prints -4
```
A float has no ^: exclusive or is a bit operation of the integers, and the message says where the power is.
Kompiliert nicht
```
const wrong = 2.0 ^ 3.0
print wrong
// error: `Float64` has no `^`: it is the exclusive or of two integers
```

A type may carry one operator's trait more than once, and the right operand says which implementation the operator reaches. That is the overload form the language keeps - a trait with a parameter - and the operator asks the same question the named call asks: a matrix that multiplies by a vector and by a number is two implementations of Multiply, and matrix * vector finds the one whose Other is a vector. Where the operand fits more than one, the type the expression is expected to produce decides; where it fits none, the operands that exist are named.

type Scale {
  factor: Int
}

type Board {
  size: Int
}

extend Board with Multiply<Scale, Board> {
  fn multiply(other: Scale): Board {
    Board(size * other.factor)
  }
}

extend Board with Multiply<Board, Board> {
  fn multiply(other: Board): Board {
    Board(size * other.size)
  }
}

const board = Board 2
const scaled = board * Scale(3)
const squared = board * board
print "{scaled.size} {squared.size}"

Kompiliert nicht

type Scale {
  factor: Int
}

type Board {
  size: Int
}

extend Board with Multiply<Scale, Board> {
  fn multiply(other: Scale): Board {
    Board(size * other.factor)
  }
}

extend Board with Multiply<Board, Board> {
  fn multiply(other: Board): Board {
    Board(size * other.size)
  }
}

const wrong = Board(2) * "two"
print wrong.size
// error: `Board` does not multiply a `String`

a[i] is Index.at, which panics if the key does not exist; a.get(i) is the same lookup, returning an Option instead. at has a default body that calls get, so a type only ever has to write get.
a[i] = v needs MutableIndex, a supertrait of Index. It also makes a[i] a var path: enemies[0].health = 5 and groups[key].append(value) take the element out, change it and put it back, without a copy.
a[from..to] is Slice.slice and shares the storage of a, starting at index 0 again. Slice<Position = Int> says what a position of the value is: an Int for a list, and a type of its own for a value whose positions only it can hand out - the range in the brackets is a range of that Position. a[from..to] = v needs MutableSlice, a supertrait of Slice, and also makes the range a var path: samples[0..100].sort { _ } works on that part of samples in place.

a ?? b is OrElse.orElse, whose fallback is lazy. Option<Value> and Result<Value, Failure> come with it, and so can a type of your own:

type Setting with OrElse<String> {
  written: String

  fn orElse(fallback: lazy String): String {
    if written.isEmpty() { fallback } else { written }
  }
}

print(Setting("") ?? "default")

Three operators are no method call, and therefore no trait. &&, || and ! are built into Bool and short-circuit their second operand, which a trait method - which always evaluates its argument - cannot do. ?. is Option.map, or flatMap when the member answers an Option, so which method it is depends on the result type; a trait for it would need Self<Output>, the higher-kinded form this language does not have. And ? leaves the enclosing function, which is something no method can do at all.
Kompiliert nicht
```
type Flag {
  value: Bool
}

const a = Flag(true)
const b = Flag(false)
print(a && b)
// error: Expected `Bool`, found `Flag`
```

Precedence#

From the loosest to the tightest. Every row but ** and ?? groups to the left, and a comparison does not chain at all (a < b < c is an error that suggests &&).

||                          or
&&                          and
==  !=  <  <=  >  >=        comparisons, which do not chain
??                          fallback, to the right
..  ..=                     ranges
+  -  |  ^                  sum, difference, bitwise or, exclusive or
*  /  %  &                  product, quotient, remainder, bitwise and
<<  >>                      shifts
**                          power, to the right
-  !  ~                     prefix: not directly on the base of **
.  ?.  ()  []  ?            member, call, index, try

What this is not#

Not every & and | is a bit operator. In a type, | between two literals ("tcp" | "udp") builds a literal type and & intersects traits (Show & Hash); in a pattern, | joins alternatives (1 | 2 =>). The parser reads a type, a pattern and an expression apart, so each keeps its meaning, and >> is two > with nothing between them, so List<List<Int>> still closes two brackets.

fn describe(value: Show & Hash, protocol: "tcp" | "udp"): String {
  "{value.show()} over {protocol}"
}

const nested: List<List<Int>> = [[1 << 2]]
print describe(1, protocol: "tcp")
print nested

Traits - with at the declaration, and default members.
Trait intersections - the other job of &, unrelated to arithmetic.
Declaring a type - what == does without a hand-written Equals.
Optional chaining - ?? and ?. in full, and where ?. does not apply.

Operators are traits

Example#

Syntax#

Rules#

Precedence#

What this is not#

Related#