Traits

A trait is a capability a type comes with. A single-method trait is named after its method, there is no inheritance, and operators are traits.

A trait is a list of members a type provides. A type comes with a trait at its declaration, or gains it afterwards through extend. There is no inheritance, no base class and no implements keyword: with is the only word for it.

Example#

trait Area {
  fn area(): Float

  fn describe(): String {
    "a shape with area {area()}"
  }
}

type Square with Area {
  side: Float

  fn area(): Float {
    side * side
  }
}

extend Square with Show {
  fn show(): String {
    "Square({side})"
  }
}

const square = Square 2.0
print "{square} {square.describe()}"

Syntax#

[public] trait <Name>[<parameters>] [with <supertraits>] {
  fn <name>(...): <Type>                    a requirement
  fn <name>(...): <Type> { ... }            a default member
  var fn <name>(...): <Type>                a requirement that changes the receiver
  static <name>: <Type>                     a constant every implementation provides
  static <name>: <Type> = <value>           a constant with a default value
}

type <Name> with <Trait>, (<Trait>, <Trait>) by <field> { ... }
extend <Name> with <Trait> { ... }
extend <Name> { ... }
extend<Item> List<Item> with <Trait> where Item: <Bound> { ... }

fn draw(shape: Area)                        a trait as a type
fn audit(entry: Show & Encode)              an intersection of traits
fn sum<Item: Add>(values: List<Item>)       a bound

Rules#

A trait with one required method is named after that method. Hash has hash, Equals has equals, Compare has compare, Show has show, Add has add, Close has close, Iterate has iterate. There are no -able adjectives: type Money with Equals, Hash, Compare reads as what it is. A trait that is mainly used as a type is a noun instead: Iterator, Accumulator, Source, Sink. Iterate has one required method, iterate, and is named after it.
with is the only keyword for "implements" and for supertraits. trait Compare with Equals says that every type with Compare also has Equals.
A member without a body is a requirement; a member with a body is a default. A default written in terms of the required members stays correct for every implementor.

That holds for a constant as well. static zero: Self without a value is a constant every implementation provides as a static constant of its own - in the type, in the extend that implements the trait, or in any other extend of the type - and one with a value is a default an implementation may replace. A body that is generic over the trait reads it through the type parameter, and which constant that is follows from the type the parameter stands for: Numeric requires zero and one, so Scalar.zero is Int.zero in one instance and Float.zero in the next.
```
trait Empty {
  static empty: Self
}

type Label with Empty {
  text: String

  static empty = Label ""
}

fn emptyOf<Value: Empty>(): Value {
  Value.empty
}

const blank: Label = emptyOf()
print blank
```
A static fn does not stand in for a required constant, and a constant without a value anywhere but in a trait is an error.
Kompiliert nicht
```
type Label {
  text: String

  static empty: Label
}
// error: A constant of the type needs a value
```
A bound is written where Item: Hash & Equals or inline as <Item: Hash>. A member may carry a where clause of its own, and then the member exists only where the clause holds - it is not a requirement on implementors.
```
fn toSet(): Set<Item> where Item: Hash
```
extend adds constants and functions, and nothing else. A field or a case in an extend is an error, because exhaustiveness and the generated constructor have to be decidable from the declaration alone.
```
extend String {
  fn shout(): String {
    "{toUpperCase()}!"
  }
}

print "hello".shout()
```
Coherence: you may write extend X with Trait only if your package owns X or owns Trait. Two implementations of one trait may never overlap.
extend without a trait is part of the type when the type belongs to your package - or to this one - in whatever file it is written. For a type of another package the file that uses the member names it, use String.shout from "acme/text", the same form a case import takes; and what a trait puts on a type it does not own is visible where the trait itself is a name of the file. See extend for both halves.
A trait can be used as a type. Whether the call is dispatched statically or dynamically is the implementation's business and is not observable. & intersects traits in a type position, and only traits can be combined - & is to traits what | is to literal types.

Coercion to a trait type is the only subtyping in the language, and there is no variance. A List<Square> is not a List<Shape>; the list is built as one:

trait Area {
  fn area(): Float
}

type Square with Area {
  side: Float

  fn area(): Float {
    side * side
  }
}

const shapes: List<Area> = [Square(2.0), Square(3.0)]
print shapes.length()

Object safety is checked per call, not per type. A member that mentions Self in a parameter or in its result, or that is static, cannot be called on a trait-typed value - but the type stays usable as a type, so List<Show & Hash> is legal and only the calls that have no meaning are rejected.
Operators are traits. + is Add.add, - is Subtract.subtract, == is Equals.equals, < is Compare.compare, a[i] is Index.at, a[i] = v is MutableIndex.set, a[from..to] is Slice.slice, and string interpolation is Show.show. &&, || and ! are the exception: they are built into Bool, they short-circuit, and they cannot be overloaded.
A type parameter of a type or a trait may have a default (trait Add<Other = Self, Output = Self>), which is why with Add means Add<Self, Self> and nobody writes it out. A fn has no such defaults: its type arguments come from the call.

One type may carry a trait with a parameter several times, and each of them is one extend. That is the overload form the language has (Where are my overloads), and which one a call means is decided by everything the call says: every argument that is not a closure, and the type the call is expected to produce. Two bodies of two instantiations cannot stand in one type body, because a type has one namespace of members.

trait Store<Component> {
  fn valueOf(): Component?
  fn attach(value: Component): Int
}

type Game {
  number: Int
  text: String
}

extend Game with Store<Int> {
  fn valueOf(): Int? {
    number
  }

  fn attach(value: Int): Int {
    value
  }
}

extend Game with Store<String> {
  fn valueOf(): String? {
    text
  }

  fn attach(value: String): Int {
    value.byteLength()
  }
}

const game = Game 1, "one"
const named: String? = game.valueOf()
print "{game.attach(7)} {named}"

Where nothing in the call tells them apart, the checker names them instead of taking the first: `valueOf` fits more than one implementation here.

by delegates a trait to the one field of a single-field type, and it binds to the element of the with list directly in front of it - a trait alone, or a parenthesised group of them - never to the whole list.
```
type Seconds with Show, (Add, Subtract) by value, Compare by value {
  value: Int
}

const total = Seconds(5) + Seconds(2)
print total
```
Show is derived here; Add, Subtract and Compare are forwarded to value. A trait that is neither derived, delegated nor written by hand is not available, which is the point: Seconds * Seconds does not compile, because that would be square seconds.
by needs a type with exactly one field, and the name after by names that field. A type with two fields cannot delegate Add to either one, and a type with cases has no field of its own to name.
Trait.member reads the trait's own members first, then the members of implementations whose target is the trait itself. That is what makes List.of(1, 2) and List.from(iterable) work. Two such implementations are an ambiguity error, and the fix is to name a type.
A shared type can only implement a shared trait. So a value of a trait type is always a value: nobody changes it while you hold it, and it can be passed to another task. For the same reason a value whose type holds a shared object does not become a value of an ordinary trait (see Shared types, rule 7).

What this is not#

A trait is not an interface with inheritance. There is no base class, no super, no overriding of a concrete implementation. A type either provides a member or takes the trait's default.

A trait is not Hashable. The name is the method, not an adjective:

type Money with Equals, Hash {
  cents: Int

  fn equals(other: Money): Bool {
    cents == other.cents
  }

  fn hash(): Int {
    cents
  }
}

print Money(1).equals(Money(1))

Kompiliert nicht

type Money with Hashable {
  cents: Int
}
// error: Unknown type `Hashable`

with does not mean "and also these type parameters". with introduces traits. Type parameters go in angle brackets, and bounds go after where or inline.

An extend is not a monkey patch. For a type of another package the file that uses the member names it, and two members of one name for one type make calling it an error until as renames one of them where it is imported.

A blanket implementation is not a fallback. extend<Source, Target> Source with Into<Target> where Target: From<Source> covers every type, is allowed only for a trait the package owns, and can never coexist with a second blanket implementation of the same trait - overlap is decided conservatively, so two of them always collide.

Declaring a type - the type a trait is given to.
Cases and match - the other half of what a type can be.
std/core - where Equals, Compare, Hash, Show and the operator traits live.
Coming from Rust - impl Trait for Type against with and extend.

Example#

Syntax#

Rules#

What this is not#

Related#